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Taṣavvuf and Karramiyya were both influential forces in Eastern Iran. An instance of their social influence was the spread of Islam in this area. The present paper uses the comparative approach to explore the reasons behind Ṣūfīs' and... more
Taṣavvuf and Karramiyya were both influential forces in Eastern Iran. An instance of their social influence was the spread of Islam in this area. The present paper uses the comparative approach to explore the reasons behind Ṣūfīs' and Karramiyya's success in spreading Islam. The study applies the descriptive-analytical method in an attempt to answer this question: What was the main cause of Ṣūfīs' and Karramiyya's success in spreading Islam? The paper reveals that this success can be attributed to the Ṣūfīs' manners and ways of communicating with people, in addition to the fact that they adopted the right commercial methods. These commercial methods include asceticism, simple and clear language, slogans aiming for equality, and making use of the Khānqāh. The Karramiyya's success in spreading Islam can be attributed to their ʾIrjāʾī beliefs, asceticism, simple language, applying the Fiṣalī Method, and making use of the Khānqāh in order to spread their beliefs. The Ṣūfīs achieved more success in spreading Islam, compared to Karramiyya. That is because alongside employing the aforementioned methods and ideas, they talked about a God whose kindness overrode his anger. Such a view would surely appeal more to the people.
Sulṭān Ḥusayn Bāyqarā's era is the golden age of Arts in Tīmūrīd period. Following the decrease of his political and military power, patronage of the arts was almost completely taken away from the Sulṭān and the Royal Family's monopoly.... more
Sulṭān Ḥusayn Bāyqarā's era is the golden age of Arts in Tīmūrīd period. Following the decrease of his political and military power, patronage of the arts was almost completely taken away from the Sulṭān and the Royal Family's monopoly. It was then put into the hands of government officials and religious ʿUlamāʾ. Their political and economic influence increased daily as they received various financial privileges from the Sulṭān, especially vast Suyūrghāls (lands) and tax exemptions. With the Sulṭān taking up centralism and reforming the privileges of land owners, the arts turned into a crucial pretext for maintaining the political and financial status of government officials. The present study applies the descriptive-analytical method to answer this fundamental question: "What purposes did the rulers and courtiers (art patrons) of this era serve in their patronage of the arts?" The study illustrates that fear of removal from office and impressment served as the main motive behind the patronage of arts, and especially patronage of architecture. By endowing their property for running artistic projects and by patronizing artists, they gained huge financial benefits, kept their wealth from being seized, and took a leap towards pleasing the Sulṭān.
Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk did most of his country and military service during the time of Alp-Arsalān and Malikshāh, and as a minister under their rule. In Sayr-ul-mulūk he expresses his ideas regarding bureaucracy and different levels of... more
Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk did most of his country and military service during the time of Alp-Arsalān and Malikshāh, and as a minister under their rule. In Sayr-ul-mulūk he expresses his ideas regarding bureaucracy and different levels of governance, including the military structure of the state, which is one of the main pillars of power. The present study collects data using written sources, and examines the data using content analysis. We attempt to answer the following questions: "As a bureaucrat, what views did Niẓām-ul-Mulk hold towards the military?" and "Which merits does he mention when it comes to the professional status of military?" In other words, the purpose of the present study is to define the status of the military, and to extract a model of military merits based on Khwājih Niẓām-ul-Mulk's viewpoints. It is suggested that the military are given major focus in Sayr-ul-mulūk. Although Niẓām-ul-Mulk criticizes the military's activities during his own time, he enumerates several merits in Sayr-ul-mulūk as important factors in forming the military's status. These include military experience and strength, respecting the superiors, not intruding on people's property (professional aspect), the multi-ethnic nature of the military, and the neatness of military men's looks and tools (personal aspect).
Between the years A.H. 264-86/A.D. 877-899, Muslims launched a series of attacks to conquer the harbor town of Syracuse. The present study explores the background and reasons behind these attacks. It is concluded that Muslim attacks on... more
Between the years A.H. 264-86/A.D. 877-899, Muslims launched a series of attacks to conquer the harbor town of Syracuse. The present study explores the background and reasons behind these attacks. It is concluded that Muslim attacks on Syracuse were carried out with the purpose of spreading Islam and getting access to the financial resources of Syracuse to dominate the Mediterranean Sea trade route. After about two centuries the attacks lead to the conquest of Syracuse. However, it was to the dismay of Christians and did not benefit the Muslims either, because they did not adopt the right strategies to protect the town. On one hand, it led to the destruction of cultural-civilizational monuments and thus escalated emigration to safer lands of Byzantium and caused a drop in the town's population. On the other hand, Sicily's Muslim military officials were in conflict with the governor of Syracuse (ʾIbn Samanih) and the Sycarusan's greediness in conquering more parts of Sicily pushed ʾIbn Samanih into seeking help from Rujār Normandy to defeat his political rivals. The Normans eventually recaptured Syracuse in A.H. 479-AD. 1086, claiming that a Muslim by the name of ʾIbn ʿAbbād had committed rubbery and had abused Christian churches.
The residence of Iranian elites in the Ottoman empire resulted in major changes in different parts of government and influenced various events. These elites were some of the most influential variables in the military changes that occurred... more
The residence of Iranian elites in the Ottoman empire resulted in major changes in different parts of government and influenced various events. These elites were some of the most influential variables in the military changes that occurred at the time. Their presence and influence can be explored through the different aspects of military actions taken during Salīm the First and Sulaymān Qānūnī's age. The present study analyses the role of Iranian political and military elites in the Ottaman's attacks on the Ṣafavīds. We also explore the different forms of cooperation between elites and Ottomans through the battles of Chāldurān in A.H. 940/A.D. 1533 and A.H. 955/A.D. 1548. The study recognizes Iranian elites as major factors giving rise to the battles between the Ottomans and the Ṣafavīds. In addition, it is concluded that some of the Iranian elites joined the Ottoman army and thus strengthened their army and weakened the Ṣafavīds'. The Iranian refugees' role is also visible through the achievements of the Ottomans.
Museums, as centers of preserving a nation's culture and history, are not recognized as individual institutions in real world. They stand in need of a multidimentional description based on the effective temporal, spatial, historical, and... more
Museums, as centers of preserving a nation's culture and history, are not recognized as individual institutions in real world. They stand in need of a multidimentional description based on the effective temporal, spatial, historical, and social contexts that have shaped their establishment as museums. Such previously undiscussed information both reveals the true identity of the museum and supports the society in guiding people and introducing historical and cultural heritage to them. Nevertheless, very few studies have investigated the subject of museums. The present study uses the descriptive-analytical research method in an attempt to provide answers for the following question: "What historical and executive measure have been taken to establish the garden of Chihil Sutūn as a museum?" The library method and official governmental documents have been used to collect data for this research. Effective measures adopted in the process of turning Chihil Sutūn into a museum since the time of Ẓil al-ssulṭān Qājār up until the contemporary period can be divided in three stages: The garden was first opened to the public during the time of Ẓil al-ssulṭān, because it was home to a couple of valuable items, but the idea of establishing an official museum was first drawn in H.S. 1310/A.D. 1931. Later, fundamental and restorative operations were conducted in different fields and the building resumed to function as an official museum.
usic was an important manifestation of civilization during the Ṣafavīd era and was influenced by the cultural policies of Ṣafavīd kings and religious affairs of the day. Unlike Persian historiographical sources, European travelogues-an... more
usic was an important manifestation of civilization during the Ṣafavīd era and was influenced by the cultural policies of Ṣafavīd kings and religious affairs of the day. Unlike Persian historiographical sources, European travelogues-an invaluable body of textual sources in Ṣafavīd era-contain ample and valuable information regarding the vicissitudes of music. The present study is a historical and library research. It explains the significance of music in Ṣafavīd era and analyzes the status and function of music in this era following the descriptive-explanatory method and the remaining travelogues written by European travelers. The reports mention various functions of this art in social life and specifically in the Ṣafavīd court. Music had important political-administrative functions in the Ṣafavīd court; for instance, in accession and coronation of the king, military affairs, bestowal of the royal robe, and reception and welcoming of foreign committees. Functions of music in the social sphere, for instance, in national and religious holidays, royal games and entertainments, the wedding ceremony, announcements, messages, and assemblies and parties were also of utmost importance to the Ṣafavīds. Despite the favorable reports of Europeans on music in Ṣafavīd era, cultural and intellectual differences have led to an ignorance of some components of music, especially regarding Persian instruments.
Siyyid Jaʿfar Murtiżā (A.H. 1364-1441/A.D. 1945-2020) is one of the authors who write about Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) and his manners of living. He has analysed a multitude of historical accounts in the book Al-ṣaḥīḥ min Sīrat-al-nabī... more
Siyyid Jaʿfar Murtiżā (A.H. 1364-1441/A.D. 1945-2020) is one of the authors who write about Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) and his manners of living. He has analysed a multitude of historical accounts in the book Al-ṣaḥīḥ min Sīrat-al-nabī al-aʿẓam. One of his methods of analysing historical narrations has only received scant attention from other scholars of the life of Prophet. The method focuses on the personality and psychological characteristics of the person who has been talked about. In the field of psychology, personality is defined as a set of physical, psycological, and behavioral characteristics distinguishing each person from others and enabling a prediction of each person's behavior. ʿĀmilī has not analysed personality from a psyco-theoretical point of view, but has rather pointed out constant behavioral characteristics based on a set of historical accounts related to each person and as such evaluated the various accounts related to that person. The present study examines ʿĀmilī's method of analysis by conducting research on Al-ṣaḥīḥ min Sīrat-al-nabī al-aʿẓam.
The historical architecture of Caspian sea's southern shores has not been studied extensively. The present study aims to identify the spatial structure of local mosques in the region and answer two questions: How similar or distinct are... more
The historical architecture of Caspian sea's southern shores has not been studied extensively. The present study aims to identify the spatial structure of local mosques in the region and answer two questions: How similar or distinct are these mosques in their structure and function compared to the mosques in other parts of Iran, especially the central parts? And in which elements are these qualities reflected? The conceptual foundations of the study are based on the assumption that region and culture affect the structural and functional characteristics of a mosque. A qualitative study is carried out through the descriptive-analytical method. Data has been collected using field obervation and library research. The study concludes that the regional roots of prayer halls and courtyard spaces are especially more apparent in small mosques. In addition, cultural influences are more apprant in Jāmiʿ (grand) mosques.
Throughout history, colors have always communicated various messages and emotions. This communication was crucially important in the political and social scene at a time when media was not available in its modern sense. Additionally, the... more
Throughout history, colors have always communicated various messages and emotions. This communication was crucially important in the political and social scene at a time when media was not available in its modern sense. Additionally, the suppression and dictatorship imposed by the government led activist groups to use colors as their symbols. Therefore, a detailed observation of colors and their meanings can help the historian in better understanding past events. The present study uses first-hand library resources in order to explore the meaning of colors through political movements during Umayyad and Abbāsīd periods. It is concluded th at colors were extensively used with the purpose of communicating messages like political agreement or disagreement, announcing political identity and togetherness, and also promoting the goals of new political strategies.
Human figures are one of the embelishemtns used in clay pottery of Nayshābūr in early Islamic centuries. These figures have been labeled as "feminine" or "masculine" types according to the phenomenological method. The present study... more
Human figures are one of the embelishemtns used in clay pottery of Nayshābūr in early Islamic centuries. These figures have been labeled as "feminine" or "masculine" types according to the phenomenological method. The present study considers pure phenomenology inadequate for assigning gender types to the figures and aims to answer the following questions in order to re-evaluate their genders: 1. How does a historical-comparative reading of the style of clothing used by the human figures help identify their gender? 2. What is the primary function of the Sāssānīd motifs used in the pottery of Nayshābūr? Do they serve a primarily symbolic or decorative function? The statistical population of the present study includes 14 designs. These have been selected from among 50 samples, with especial emphasis on the "masculine" or "feminine" types or their being analysed in previous studies. The designs are analysed using library-documentary sources and in a comparative-historical study in order to re-evaluate gender types. The study concludes: 1. The style of clothing used by the figures in pottery of Nayshābūr is similar to that of courtiers from Transoxiana and Khurāsān in early Islamic period. 2. The Sāssānīd embelishments serve primarily decorative functions. 3. Finally, the study considers some of the so-called "feminine" figures to be representations of trimmed young men or immature adolescent courtiers.
The world of wonders and mysterious phenomena provides man with amusement and at times fills him with dread. Wonders are a source of fascination to him. Man has always expressed a strong desire for understanding such phenomena and making... more
The world of wonders and mysterious phenomena provides man with amusement and at times fills him with dread. Wonders are a source of fascination to him. Man has always expressed a strong desire for understanding such phenomena and making contact with them. This desire is represented in the culture and literature of some human societies in forms of imagination, legend, and myth. Muslims, too, were extremely fond of this topic. The publication of multiple books titled 'Ajāyib-Nāmih (Books of Wonders) in Islamic culture and civilization proves this fact. In composing such works, Muslim authors relied on the books written by the ancients, as well as anecdotes told by their own contemporaries and perhaps personal observations. They were intrigued by a wide array of wonders, ranging geographically from a large part of the Great Muslim land, to non-Muslim countries located near and far from it. Among the countries referred to as Dār al-Kufr (The Abode of Unbelief), China was perceived as a mysterious land in the Muslims' mind and imagination. This was due to a its long distance and a lack of communication between the Muslims and the Chinese, resulting in a lack of knowledge about the culture. The present study aims to explore the portrayal of this large country (China) as explained in the Muslim 'Ajāyib-writers up to the ninth century A.H./fifteenth century A.D., using the descriptive-analytical method.
Conducting the mourning rituals of Āshūrā and Āshūrānegārī were highly useful practices in order to preach Shīʿīsm and Shīʿa doctrines during the Ṣaffavīd period. Among such works, Buḥrānī's Madīna Maʿājiz al-aʾīmma played a crucial role.... more
Conducting the mourning rituals of Āshūrā and Āshūrānegārī were highly useful practices in order to preach Shīʿīsm and Shīʿa doctrines during the Ṣaffavīd period. Among such works, Buḥrānī's Madīna Maʿājiz al-aʾīmma played a crucial role. Therefore, it proves necessary to analyse the citations used in this work in reference to Shīʿa resources. The present essay adopts the mixed method of research. Data is collected through library research, while statistics and citations are provided in tables and charts in order to recognize the citation rate after counting the number of citations to Shīʿa and Sunnī resources. The study reveals that 95% of the book's citations refer to Shīʿa resources, with the remaining 5% referring to Sunnī resources. All in all, the book does not hold a high academic standing because it has made use of unreliable contemporary resources. Buḥrānī has used such resources in an act of favoring Sunnī manuscripts and as a kind of ultimatum presented to the Sunnīs. Most of the Shīʿa resources used by Buḥrānī are related to rituals, pilgrimage, and manāqib. On the other hand, most Sunnī resources cite and refer to historical events.
In Islamic and Shīʿa culture, historical subjects dealing with anthropological aspects have often been neglected. The Baqīʿ cemetery, one of the oldest cemeteries in Islam and a pilgrimage site for Shīʿa Muslims assumes considerable... more
In Islamic and Shīʿa culture, historical subjects dealing with anthropological aspects have often been neglected. The Baqīʿ cemetery, one of the oldest cemeteries in Islam and a pilgrimage site for Shīʿa Muslims assumes considerable importance in anthropological studies. The present study explores the cemetery through the early Hijri centuries/c. 7 th century A.D., adopting the anthropological approach. It is concluded that Baqīʿ has mostly served a socialritualistic function during this time. From a social point of view, the cemetery was used for residence, performing prayers, or forming assemblies. From a ritualistic point of view, it was used for various death rituals of Ḥijaz residents. Some of the anthropological and cultural features of this cemetery were revealed in the second century A.H. Most importantly, the cemetery acquired a legendary status among the Arabs and certain beliefs were formed regarding this divine and impressive state. Additionally, the cemetery grew in importance because of its identity. Concurrently with the stabilization of sect-related and religious identity, signs of sect-related and religious quarrels show up in the death rituals and especially burial rites at Baqīʿ.
In Islamic and Shīʿa culture, historical subjects dealing with anthropological aspects have often been neglected. The Baqīʿ cemetery, one of the oldest cemeteries in Islam and a pilgrimage site for Shīʿa Muslims assumes considerable... more
In Islamic and Shīʿa culture, historical subjects dealing with anthropological aspects have often been neglected. The Baqīʿ cemetery, one of the oldest cemeteries in Islam and a pilgrimage site for Shīʿa Muslims assumes considerable importance in anthropological studies. The present study explores the cemetery through the early Hijri centuries/c. 7 th century A.D., adopting the anthropological approach. It is concluded that Baqīʿ has mostly served a socialritualistic function during this time. From a social point of view, the cemetery was used for residence, performing prayers, or forming assemblies. From a ritualistic point of view, it was used for various death rituals of Ḥijaz residents. Some of the anthropological and cultural features of this cemetery were revealed in the second century A.H. Most importantly, the cemetery acquired a legendary status among the Arabs and certain beliefs were formed regarding this divine and impressive state. Additionally, the cemetery grew in importance because of its identity. Concurrently with the stabilization of sect-related and religious identity, signs of sect-related and religious quarrels show up in the death rituals and especially burial rites at Baqīʿ.
The shift in societal needs from the mid-19 th century led to major changes in historiocism and historiography. From the 20 th century onwards, the pace of these changes could be determined and organized in three main paradigms. Some... more
The shift in societal needs from the mid-19 th century led to major changes in historiocism and historiography. From the 20 th century onwards, the pace of these changes could be determined and organized in three main paradigms. Some historians believe that the past may be reconstructed in the process of being reproduced. Others have stated that such a practice is impractical duo to the number and magnitude of events. Therefore, the historian's purpose is to somehow construct the events, inspired by the past. Such an inspiration is sometimes related to present or future discourses. At its best, it is close to the heart of the matter at hand. This setting has laid the foundations for total explanation and adopting some ideology in the field of history. The third group of scholars are skeptical and believe that deconstruction is a better practice in understanding the past comprehensively. The present study draws on major resources and aims to introduce, compare, analyse, and evaluate each of these models and their findings. Such methodological arrangements highlight the status of Iranian historipgraphy. Hopefully it would offer a good starting point towards departing from some of the dead-ends in the field of historiography.
Shaykh Ṣadūq has been praised for two reasons: The large number of his Mashāyikh and the various Hadith travels that he took. Nayshābūr was one of his destinations. His trip to this city was advantageous both to himself and to the... more
Shaykh Ṣadūq has been praised for two reasons: The large number of his Mashāyikh and the various Hadith travels that he took. Nayshābūr was one of his destinations. His trip to this city was advantageous both to himself and to the residents of this city. The present study aims to identify Nayshābūr as a city in the 3 rd and 4 th centuries A.H./ 9 th and 10 th centuries A.D., and also to explain the accomplishments of Ṣadūq in this city, as he travelled to collect Ḥadis and seek inspiration to write and preserve Ḥadis and Shīʿa resources. The study also focuses on identifying Ṣadūq's Mashāyikh in Nayshābūr (especially the non-imamī Mashāyikh) and distinguishing between the various schools and sects in Nayshābūr and how the residents showd academic tolerance towards opposing views. The writer belives that Nayshābūr is the most important city-coming after Qum and Ray (where Ṣadūq resided)-to have provided him with Ḥadis knowledge.
The interest of Qajar leaders in minerals and the military and industrial needs of the country for mineral raw materials coupled with the necessity of industrial development of the country prompted state officials to pay greater attention... more
The interest of Qajar leaders in minerals and the military and industrial needs of the country for mineral raw materials coupled with the necessity of industrial development of the country prompted state officials to pay greater attention to educating students in diverse fields of earth sciences (especially mining engineering). The recruitment of foreign experts and dispatching students to Europe mitigated some of the problems pertained to expertise and technical knowledge in this industry, but they were not sufficient.
With the establishment of the Dar ul-Funun (Polytechnic School) and the recruitment of foreign teachers by Amirkabir, modern education in this field was significantly improved. The development of industry and science on a global scale, the expanded economic views of the Iranian political officials, the contribution of two university professors, Czarnotta and Schlimmer and the publication of new textbooks led to the growth of technical knowledge of mining engineering in Iran. With the graduation of Dar ul-Fonun students and the return of Europe-educated students, there was a surge in mining activity. Historical documents exhibit that in the years following the establishment of Dar ul-Funun, various industries made headway in Iran. The growing trend of mining activity in the late Qajar years can be seen as a manifestation of the education’s impact on the growth of the mining industry in Iran.
Among the Islamic calligraphy, Nastaliq script, as the second script whose shape is characterized by roundness and curvature, is one of the notable inventions of Iranians. Meanwhile, in Qajar era, Shiraz was the center of this script.... more
Among the Islamic calligraphy, Nastaliq script, as the second script whose shape is characterized by roundness and curvature, is one of the notable inventions of Iranians. Meanwhile, in Qajar era, Shiraz was the center of this script. Thus, a raft of Shirazi calligraphers in this period, both in Shiraz and in the capital, promoted a particular style of Nastaliq individually. The present research, adopting a descriptiveanalytical method, looks into the characteristics of the Nastaliq script in Shiraz during the Qajar era. In this process, while analyzing the role of Shirazi calligraphers in the expansion of Nastaliq calligraphy, it elaborates on the characteristics of the script introduced by four prominent Shirazi calligraphers at the Qajar era, i.e. Agha
Cursive calligraphy, one of the striking scripts of the Islamic world, is the third type of Iranian calligraphy that was invented in the early 11th century AH and later epitomized by Darwish Abdulmajid Taleghani in the course of its... more
Cursive calligraphy, one of the striking scripts of the Islamic world, is the third type of Iranian calligraphy that was invented in the early 11th century AH and later epitomized by Darwish Abdulmajid Taleghani in the course of its evolution. The style of Darwish and his disciples is recognized as the old style of the cursive script today. A few centuries later, after a period of stagnation, Yadollah Kabuli Khansari breathed fresh air into this style. In his writing, each work acquires its specific form, space and composition, and due to its variety and novelty, is recognized as the new style of cursive script. The main goal of this paper is to carry out a comparative study of the cursive script structure in the works of Darwish Abdulmajid Taleghani, Yadollah Kabuli Khansari; selected artists of both ancient and contemporary styles. To achieve this goal, attempts have been made to address the issues related to the similarities and differences in the structure of the cursive scripts of Darwish Abdulmajid and Yadollah Kabuli. The study covers a collection of the two calligraphers' works, which were randomly selected based on the extant samples. The results suggest that the cursive script structures in the works of these two artists, while sharing features such as diverse shapes of letters and words, curtailed-writing in the elongated space and the use of colored inks, have some differences including stricter rules for letters and words, clear combinations without unconventional twists in Darwish works, greater freedom and the painting-like nature of words in Kabuli's works.
The fourth to sixth centuries AH marked the concurrent ruling of the Fatimid Shiite caliphate and the Sunni Abbasid caliphate in a vast stretch of the Islamic territory. The two caliphates extensively used textiles as a means of political... more
The fourth to sixth centuries AH marked the concurrent ruling of the Fatimid Shiite caliphate and the Sunni Abbasid caliphate in a vast stretch of the Islamic territory. The two caliphates extensively used textiles as a means of political confrontation. This study aims to conduct a contextual analysis of the impact of the Fatimid political rivalry with the Abbasids on Fatimid textiles. Accordingly, the main question is how these political rivalries influenced the Fatimid textiles. The contextualism framework, informed by the theory that a work of art is a social product shaped in the historical context of society, lays the ground for exploring the role of textiles in this rivalry within the historical-political context of that period. In this research, a document analysis method has been adopted for data collection along with a descriptive-analytical method that draws on the theoretical research. According to the findings, the role of textiles in the Fatimid political rivalry with the Abbasids covers three periods: the first one is the Fatimid Caliphate, in which textiles played a symbolic role in overthrowing the Abbasid agents in North Africa and establishing the Fatimid Caliphate. The second is the golden age of the Fatimid period and the domination of the Egyptian textile industry, when textiles were exploited for political lobby in the Abbasid land. The third one is the last years of Fatimid caliphate, in which, due to internal and external crises, textiles served as means of establishing political relations with the Abbasids.
This article investigates hunting and its place in the life of the Shah and Qajar aristocracy in terms of its environmental consequences. During the Qajar period, following military modernization and the development of hunting tools and... more
This article investigates hunting and its place in the life of the Shah and Qajar aristocracy in terms of its environmental consequences. During the Qajar period, following military modernization and the development of hunting tools and equipment, the public attitude toward the environment changed. A ramification of this alteration manifested in hunting, which was a long-established pastime of the Iranian courtiers and royal families. This research is based on the review of information in the written sources of that era, which was conducted using a descriptive-analytical approach. At the same time, efforts are made to represent animal species and their hunting range. The findings reveal that the Qajar aristocracy, including the king, princes, lower-tier officials in the ruling structure and even the women of Harem played a major role in hunting different species of animals at that time. The strong ties of the Qajar aristocracy with hunting, disregard for the environment and absence of a legal monitoring mechanism contributed to the expansion of hunting, neglectful treatment of nature and the extinction and decline of some animal species. In addition, another group of non-Iranian hunters, including tourists, diplomats, or military advisers, also enjoyed the privileges bestowed on them by kings or princes. This reckless hunting had devastating consequences for the environment and wildlife of Iran, the dimensions of which are explored in the present study.
The difference in the age of Hazrat Fatima (PBUH) documented in ancient Sunni and Shiite historical sources is more than a decade. The prevailing view of the Sunnis is that the Hazrat Fatima was born before the Be'that. Accordingly, five... more
The difference in the age of Hazrat Fatima (PBUH) documented in ancient Sunni and Shiite historical sources is more than a decade. The prevailing view of the Sunnis is that the Hazrat Fatima was born before the Be'that. Accordingly, five years prior to Be'that is often cited as the time of her birth. However, most Shiites concur on five years after Be'that as her birth date. The present study aims to shed light on the accurate view among these different narrations by exploring the age of Hazrat Fatima (PBUH) in the earlier sources, relying on the narrations quoted in the Al-Tabqat Al-Kubra (Book of the Major Classes) and their comparison with the sources described in the two sects. Accordingly, even though the probability of her birth in the post-Be'that period is fairly higher, it does not coincide with the prevailing narration among the Shiites (the fifth year after Be'that). Therefore, Hazrat Fatima was probably born in the first year after Be'that and lived for about 23 years.
The distinct atmosphere characterizing Mongol rule did the groundwork for a shift in the informal belief systems such as Sufism in the vast territory of Iran. This atmosphere paved the way for the rise of Sufism from political isolation,... more
The distinct atmosphere characterizing Mongol rule did the groundwork for a shift in the informal belief systems such as Sufism in the vast territory of Iran. This atmosphere paved the way for the rise of Sufism from political isolation, and the emergence of various sects, which consequently provoked a revisiting of Sufi thoughts on political and social activism. Naqshbandi, which was founded in the ninth century AH thanks to the efforts of sheikhs such as Khajeh Obaidullah Ahrar in northeastern Iran, underwent changes, developed and persisted during the Sheibanian period under the theoretical and practical contributions of Khajeh Ahmad Kasani. The present study explores the distinctive political approach of Kasani and the main determinants of his approach. Informed by the findings of this study, the rivalry and antagonism of religious scholars toward Sufism in the first half of Sheibani rule, the modification of Sheibanian's religious policy in the second half and the rivalry of Naqshbandi sheikhs for leadership following the collapse of the Timurids urged Kasani to change the conventional belief system of Sheibanian. The position that Kasani ascribed to the advocacy of Khan in the Sufi tradition was radically different from the traditional and cautionary view of the Naqshbandi sheikhs. The assignment of an ijtihad role to the Sufi sheikhs, the spiritual status of the khan, as well as the redefinition of the Khajegan's tradition were among other changes introduced by Kasani.
This article surveys the evolution of research on Siyasatnama from the beginning to the end of 2019 while analyzing their shortcomings to address these questions: 1. What approaches have been adopted in studies on Siyasatnama from the... more
This article surveys the evolution of research on Siyasatnama from the beginning to the end of 2019 while analyzing their shortcomings to address these questions: 1. What approaches have been adopted in studies on Siyasatnama from the beginning (1963) until 2019? 2. Which approaches are more frequent and what is the reason behind this popularity? 3. What factors have prompted a shift in research approach to Siyasatnama at different periods? A total of 209 articles in this field were subjected to analysis to investigate their content, sources, approach, strengths and weaknesses. Also, the impact of previous sources and the inclusion of new and original points were taken into account. According to their frequency, they embraced political, comparative, religious, theoretical, descriptive, historical, critical, literary, biographical, and codicological approaches, respectively. Among the factors underlining the evolution of the approach in articles, Abbas Iqbal's version of Siyasatnama in 1941, the book of Khajeh Nizam al-Mulk Tusi and the discussion of political ideas of Iranshahri in Siyasatnama's in the 1990s as well as the sociopolitical atmosphere of Iran in the second half of the nineties could be mentioned. In the results section, the frequency of each approach and their analysis, the temporal distribution of approaches in various decades, and the factors associated with the evolution of approaches and their critique are discussed. In the final section, which is dedicated to an analysis of research flaws, the main criticisms leveled against research on Siyasatnama are proposed.
Injuids' bureaucracy marked a dynamic and brilliant period in the history of Iranian art and literature in terms of its cultural and artistic approaches, especially in fields such as gilding, page layout formatting, painting and... more
Injuids' bureaucracy marked a dynamic and brilliant period in the history of Iranian art and literature in terms of its cultural and artistic approaches, especially in fields such as gilding, page layout formatting, painting and architecture, as well as the rise of poets such as Hafez Shirazi, Ubayd Zakani and Khajavi Kermani,. The creation of cultural and artistic works cannot be studied without considering the stances and actions of the courtiers and activists in this dynasty. By adopting a descriptiveanalytical approach, this paper focuses on the role of Injuids' bureaucracy in cultural and artistic flourishing, as well as the determinants of its influence. The findings suggest that the efficient bureaucratic organization in this period and efforts to establish security, the prosperity of trade and social welfare, along with the strong presence and influence of ministers, rulers, bureaucrats and artists had a great bearing on the artistic prosperity in this period. In addition, it seems that reputation, experiences and origins of Injuids' bureaucracy, their association with bureaucratic families and figures, as well as tolerance, generosity, justice and Iranianism of Shah Abu Ishaq Inju and his relatives together with the sustainability of the bureaucratic dynasty in Shiraz in the eighth century AH have been key factors linked to the impact of bureaucrats and their organizational capabilities in the field of governance, especially cultural and artistic affairs.
The Kamkars were an Iranian family in the first centuries AH and one of the renowned peasants in the Khorasan region (c. 309-31 AH). The appellation of this family comes from and is attributed to Kamkar, the Marvi peasant and one of the... more
The Kamkars were an Iranian family in the first centuries AH and one of the renowned peasants in the Khorasan region (c. 309-31 AH). The appellation of this family comes from and is attributed to Kamkar, the Marvi peasant and one of the sons of Yazdgerd III, the last Sassanid king (632-651 AD). Some members of this family held positions in the administration system of Taherians (255-259 AH), Saffarians (247-339 AH) and Samanids (261-395 AH). The present study investigates their national and military positions by adopting a descriptive-analytical approach. This family, ruling over parts of Khorasan, was the commander in chief of the Khorasan Army. A prominent figure of this family was Ahmad ibn Sahl ibn Hashim (d. 307 AH). His father and brothers were also secretaries and astronomers. Aside from their political-military role, this family played a crucial role in the preservation of Iranian science and culture by patronizing authors and scientists.
The right to a healthy environment has been recognized as a human right by many governments in recent decades. As the title of the Islamic Republic of Iran implies, the Iranian Constitution is inspired by religious teachings, including... more
The right to a healthy environment has been recognized as a human right by many governments in recent decades. As the title of the Islamic Republic of Iran implies, the Iranian Constitution is inspired by religious teachings, including the conduct and lifestyle the Prophet (PBUH) and the Infallible Imams (AS). In this context, we can investigate the degree of compatibility between the elements of environmental rights stipulated in the constitutional rights of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the conduct of the Prophet and the Infallible. In this article, using a descriptive-analytical method, people's right to a healthy environment and environmental protection strategies such as observing personal and social health, protecting animal rights, preserving natural vegetation, preventing water, soil, and air pollution and moderating consumption in the lifestyle of the Prophet and the Infallible are studied. They are further analyzed within the framework of the constitutional rights of the Islamic Republic of Iran, international contexts, constitutional principles and ordinary laws pertained to the right to a healthy environment. Finally, some solutions are presented to foster the right to a healthy environment in the Islamic ruling.
The structure and form of any paintings, in addition to reflecting the inner spirit of the artist, can be influenced by environmental factors, which are sometimes associated with social factors or swayed by political events of the time.... more
The structure and form of any paintings, in addition to reflecting the inner spirit of the artist, can be influenced by environmental factors, which are sometimes associated with social factors or swayed by political events of the time. In light of the changes in the structure of modern Iranian painting in 1968-2011 period, the question that arises is "What environmental factors have affected the structure and diverse trends of modern Iranian painters?" It appears that variables such as social, political and cultural events as well as the pace of communication developments have a huge bearing on structural changes in modern Iranian paintings in each decade. Therefore, this study aims to explore environmental-cultural variables along with the structure of works in each decade. The results of this descriptive-analytical research suggest that environmental factors could be spilt into two general categories of internal and external factors. The internal factors encompass social and cultural changes in each period such as the Islamic Revolution and the Cultural Revolution movement, art festivals and journals, IT expansion, the opening and development of art galleries, the increasing passion of young people for art and the proliferation of schools and external factors. It also embraces the relatively strong presence of Iranian artists in international festivals, the sale of Iranian works of art in global markets, the invitation of foreign artists, and trips of Iranian artists abroad. Overall, it seems that the transformation of the Iranian painting structure in this period has already been influenced by new approaches to art in the West.
The present article seeks to describe the political life of Mirza Reza Arfa al-Dawla with emphasis on the record of his performance as a diplomat in the Ottoman Empire. In this paper, drawing on diverse sources such as memoirs,... more
The present article seeks to describe the political life of Mirza Reza Arfa al-Dawla with emphasis on the record of his performance as a diplomat in the Ottoman Empire. In this paper, drawing on diverse sources such as memoirs, newspapers, archival documents and other studies, the diplomatic records of Arfa in Istanbul are evaluated. The research posits that Mirza Reza Arfa al-Dawla, as Iran's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, took advantage of his diplomatic skills and good relationships with the Ottoman sultan to pave the way for the peaceful resolution of issues between the two countries. The findings suggest that addressing the border problems triggered by the displacement of tribes and the Ottoman government's military invasion to Iran, striving to settle the problem of military service of Iranian citizens born to an Ottoman mother, raising Iran's customs tariff, contributing to the exemption of Iranians living in Istanbul from paying deferred tax on Iranian schools, hospitals and cemeteries, obtaining the permission to perform Iranian and Shiite religious rites freely in Mecca and Medina, and cooperating with the Saadat Association to resolve the case regarding the report of Wahhabeing, the Ottoman ambassador to Iran, on Iranians' disrespect to Sunni sacred rituals, which provoked the wrath of Tawfiq Pasha, Ottoman Foreign Minister Ottoman Empire, are among the challenges facing and measures taken by Mirza Reza Arfa al-Dawlah in the Ottoman Empire.
The intellectuals of the Constitutional era, along with other strata of the society, have played a vital role in transmitting and promoting the concepts of Western modernity to Iranian society. This mission was partially accomplished... more
The intellectuals of the Constitutional era, along with other strata of the society, have played a vital role in transmitting and promoting the concepts of Western modernity to Iranian society. This mission was partially accomplished through the translation of Western works. The characteristics of Iranian modernity, the efforts of Iranian intellectuals in the Constitutional era to bring the discourse of modernity to Iran and the importance of translation in this regard have been the subject of many studies, particularly in the field of comparative literature. Given the paucity of research on this subject in Translation Studies, the present study was conducted to bridge this gap and explore the awareness-raising function of translation as well as the nexus between intellectual discourse and translation in this period. In this library research, the seminal works of Talibov Tabrizi are examined within the framework of postcolonial studies by adopting a text analysis approach in order to shed light on his role in conveying the components of the modernity discourse to Iran. It is because the intellectual discourse in the Constitutional era characterizes a discourse that arises from the translation and cultural translation of modernity.
Tahmasebi Fālnāmeh is one of the few Iranian works of art that bring together information from various sources and Iranian-Islamic ideals (Shiite and Sufi). The multiplicity of sources shaping the content of this book has led to the... more
Tahmasebi Fālnāmeh is one of the few Iranian works of art that bring together information from various sources and Iranian-Islamic ideals (Shiite and Sufi). The multiplicity of sources shaping the content of this book has led to the production of a work that is variegated and hybrid in its application of visual elements. Since artistic imagination is a crucial factor in the embodiment of reason in the tangible, it is possible to study how meaning is shaped in works of art through techniques inspired by the analysis of imagination. In this paper, one of the methods of imagination-oriented analysis proposed by Gilbert Durand has been adopted to analyze an illustration in Tahmasebi Fālnāmeh. The research data was obtained by observing and decomposing the image into its components. Also, the information required for analysis was also attained from library research before applying Durand’s imagination method of analysis. The results indicate that the artist of the illustration has drawn on all twelve structures explained by the Durand to express the theme of immortality in his portray of Resurrections Day.
Biographies have a special place as a source of research in social history. Although the main focus of biographies is on the life and memoires of poets and orators, the peripheral information stated amidst the biographies can play an... more
Biographies have a special place as a source of research in social history. Although the main focus of biographies is on the life and memoires of poets and orators, the peripheral information stated amidst the biographies can play an effective role in supplementing and sometimes correcting the information obtained from historical sources. Among the biographies of the Safavid period, Taḏkera-ye Naṣrābādi is of special importance both in terms of the abundance of biographies and the sheer volume of peripheral information, especially the author's painstaking effort to document the life of different segments of society. This article, which uses a library method and a descriptive-analytical approach, seeks to answer the question, "What role does Taḏkera-ye Naṣrābādi play in explaining the social situation in the Safavid period?" The findings suggest that although the social information in this work are presented indirectly amidst the biographies of poets and orators of this era, the author's special attention to different classes of society, especially the general public, and their hobbies, beliefs and customs and social interactions, not only demonstrates the challenges facing different social strata of his era, but also males the book an invaluable resource of information that can shed light on various aspects of Safavid social life, especially its late period.
The Ilkhanids ruled their territories by means of two administrative institutions, (the Diwan) and the Emirate. At the top of the Emirate were senior commanders called the Noyans, who played a crucial role in political events such as... more
The Ilkhanids ruled their territories by means of two administrative institutions, (the Diwan) and the Emirate. At the top of the Emirate were senior commanders called the Noyans, who played a crucial role in political events such as succession developments, from the dawn to the fall of the Ilkhanid dynasty. There are heated debates about some of Noyans in the Ilkhanid period such as Nowruz and Chupan. However, there are lesser-known emirs such as the Tokuchar that understanding their role and function can shed light on various dimensions and important role of the Emirate in the developments of the Ilkhanids. The present study adopts a descriptive-analytical method to explore the factors underlying the power of Ilkhanate as well as factors shaping the political behavior of the Tokuchar Nouyan. The findings suggest that the high status of the military aristocracy was the key factor contributing to the promotion of the Noyans in the political structure of the Ilkhanid government. Tokuchar, as a crown-bestower, had a prominent role in ascension and deposition of at least five Ilkhans (Ahmad Taghudār, Arghun, Gikhāto, Bāidu, and Ghāzān). The political behavior of the Emirs the like of Tokuchar provoked a heavy and costly rivalry between the Noyans and different Yurts, with the four-year (690-94 AH) internal battles over succession being conspicuous instances of such rivalries.
Ancient sources about conducts and lifestyle (Seereh), Hadith, Rijal (knowledge of men), classes, jurisprudence (Fiqh) and interpretation (Tafsir), in addition to providing specialized information, offers insights into a raft of other... more
Ancient sources about conducts and lifestyle (Seereh), Hadith, Rijal (knowledge of men), classes, jurisprudence (Fiqh) and interpretation (Tafsir), in addition to providing specialized information, offers insights into a raft of other topics, including the current administrative positions in the Prophet's ruling system. Recognition and analysis of such data can acquaint us with aspects of the socio-political life of early Islam, shedding light on the context of the revelation of Quranic verses and Prophet's narrations. Most of studies in the contemporary era have approached this issue from various angles in order to analyze the history of the early Islam. Revisiting the background of these analyses is the subject of the present paper. That is, by reviewing the history of Islamic civilization, we explore an array of scientific trends that have strived to analyze common administrative positions in the "the Prophet's city", addressing issues such as the history of efforts and approaches to identifying administrative positions of that time, intellectual trends prompting such efforts, perspectives they have offered to researchers, unresolved issues, and major theoretical and practical challenges facing such studies.
The status and importance of the qibla in the religious obligations of Muslims has placed locating qibla at the center of Muslim scholar' attention. When Muslims arrived in Andalusia in 93 AH, one of their initial projects was the... more
The status and importance of the qibla in the religious obligations of Muslims has placed locating qibla at the center of Muslim scholar' attention. When Muslims arrived in Andalusia in 93 AH, one of their initial projects was the construction of the first mosque on the peninsula, which necessitated finding qibla in this land. Until the second half of the 3rd century AH, when mathematical methods and qiblafinding instruments were not yet common, qibla-locating, influenced by the popular astronomical knowledge of pre-Islamic Arabs, was determined by astronomical observations of sunrise and sunset. This study aims to investigate how qibla was located by Andalusian astronomers and jurists before the advent of mathematical methods. The paper discusses different ways of locating qibla in Andalusia, focusing on ancient Andalusian landmarks and ancient texts, along with an explanation of some recent European research. The findings suggest the divergence of viewpoints in the first qibla-finding methods in Andalusia so that their qibla-locating methods were not as precise as mathematical methods later adopted by astronomers.
The conquest of Iran by the Muslim Arabs that marked the fall of the Sassanid dynasty, as well as the questions about its justifications and consequences, have been extensively discussed by historians from a variety of angles. Hence,... more
The conquest of Iran by the Muslim Arabs that marked the fall of the Sassanid dynasty, as well as the questions about its justifications and consequences, have been extensively discussed by historians from a variety of angles. Hence, there are divergent views on the rationales underlying their rapid and unpredictable domination over the great Sassanid territory. For example, references have been made to the reconciliation of some Iranian aristocratic and ruling families with the Arabs for economic and religious purposes. However, no independent and systematic research has explored the non-economic and non-religious goals and motives of the Iranian aristocracy in reconciliation with the Arabs so far. This study, utilizing a descriptive-analytical method, strives to explore the political, social, military, and security stimuli of the Arab conquerors. According to findings, the urgency to protect one's life, maintain former positions, promote one's socio-political status in the new ruling system, exploit Arab military force to get rid of traditional rivals, and be realistic about surviving the military crisis and regaining power impelled a class of Iranian aristocrats to pursue the strategy of reconciliation with the Arab invading forces.
With the rise of the Fatimids in the Maghrib at the beginning of the fourth century AH, the clash of Islamic states entered a new level. The efforts of the Fatimid ruling system to establish an all-inclusive Ismaili caliphate elicited a... more
With the rise of the Fatimids in the Maghrib at the beginning of the fourth century AH, the clash of Islamic states entered a new level. The efforts of the Fatimid ruling system to establish an all-inclusive Ismaili caliphate elicited a backlash from the Abbasid and Umayyad of Andalusia in the east and west of the world of Islam. Although a raft of historical and political obstacles inhibited an official and practical alliance between the two governments to confront the Fatimids, each state adopted specific measures to deal with Fatimids, prevent the expansion of their territory, curb their power and debilitate their strength. According to the findings of this historical study, the Abbasids, by thwarting the Fatimid domination in Egypt, erecting a defensive barrier by establishing the Ikhshidid dynasty and casting doubt on the Fatimid lineage. Meanwhile, deterring the expansion of Fatimid occupation in Iraq played a crucial role in provoking and fueling the internal crisis in the West. The Umayyads of Andalusia also responded to Fatimid opposition by espousing groups that opposed the Fatimid caliphate, disputing the caliphate, orchestrating military actions, and consolidating their presence in the Maghrib. As a result of these actions, the Fatimids faced a plethora of internal crises and revolts and tapered off their power for putting up a unified and inclusive front against Abbasid and Umayyad governments.
The bulk of studies on the Umayyad era have highlighted the Arabism of the Umayyad governors and agents and their contempt for non-Arabs. Nevertheless, in the Umayyad bureaucracy, the Iranian characteristics inherited from the Sassanid... more
The bulk of studies on the Umayyad era have highlighted the Arabism of the Umayyad governors and agents and their contempt for non-Arabs. Nevertheless, in the Umayyad bureaucracy, the Iranian characteristics inherited from the Sassanid period and the activities of the Iranian bureaucrats are clearly visible. The Umayyads were indebted to the pre-Islamic bureaucracy of Iran not only on the account of their ignorance and organizational demands, but also due to the skills and competencies of the Iranians in this domain. This paper, by considering criteria such as explicit reports in these sources regarding the Iranian origin of bureaucrats and also signs that lend credit to this argument, seeks to identify bureaucratic Iranians in this period. By doing so, this paper challenges Umayyad Arabism inherent in the bureaucracy governing eastern lands of the Caliphate.
The Mongol Ilkhanids’ (653-736 AH) emphasis on commercial routes and the revival of the economic structure led to business growth and prosperity. Under this new structure, Abarkouh (Abarquh) was placed on the route of Iraq's communication... more
The Mongol Ilkhanids’ (653-736 AH) emphasis on commercial routes and the revival of the economic structure led to business growth and prosperity. Under this new structure, Abarkouh (Abarquh) was placed on the route of Iraq's communication paths with Fars, Shabankareh, Kerman, Khorasan and Khuzestan, and was therefore put on the political and economic map of that time. Under these circumstances, a mint called Tavous was established in this city. According to the findings of this study, the coinage in this mint started in the early Ilkhanid period and continued until the early Safavid period. The coins in Tavous Mint were not made of mono metal, but rather forged with gold, silver and copper coins with labels such as "Tavous", "City of Tavous" and "Abarquh".
The designs, inscriptions, and religious themes on both sides of the coins altered in accordance with the monetary system utilized in each dynasty. For this reason, it is not strange to see Shiite and Sunni themes as well as Persian, Arabic, Uighur and Chinese scripts on these coins.
The emigration of Armenians living in Jolfa to Isfahan during the reign of Shah Abbas, which was driven by economic and political considerations, gave rise to numerous consequences. The special attitude of the Safavid government to the... more
The emigration of Armenians living in Jolfa to Isfahan during the reign of Shah Abbas, which was driven by economic and political considerations, gave rise to numerous consequences. The special attitude of the Safavid government to the Armenians along with Shah Abbas's tolerant religious policies towards the Christians gradually convinced the Pope that the capacity of the Christians residing in the Iranian plateau, especially the Armenians, could be exploited to strengthen the Catholic Church against the Sunni Ottoman government. Hence, the special envoys of the Pope (the Carmelite), since their arrival in Iran (1016 AH/1608 AD) constantly strived to persuade Armenians into converting to Catholic Christianity. The Carmelite priests resorted to diverse strategies to accomplish this end. For instance, in light of the commercial-economic role of the Armenians inhabiting in Jolfa, they offered trade concessions and privileges to Armenians in some periods by means of cooperation with the European governments in a bid to lure Armenian businessmen of Jolfa. Initially, the Armenians of Jolfa held a positive attitude to the Carmelite, but soon afterwards, the disclosure of the ulterior motives of the Pope's envoys led to the confrontation of these two. It even culminated in the expulsion of Carmelite priests from Jolfa. The authors of this paper aim to explore the relationship of the Pope's envoys with the Armenian of Jolfa and shaed light on its consequences
Travelogues have a special place in historical studies due to their wealth of valuable information, and historians at all times have employed travelogues as first-hand sources in their research. Ibn Jubayr’ famous travelogue (540-614... more
Travelogues have a special place in historical studies due to their wealth of valuable information, and historians at all times have employed travelogues as first-hand sources in their research. Ibn Jubayr’ famous travelogue (540-614 AH/1145-1217), who made three visits to the East, is a description of his first travel. In addition to the pilgrimage to the Mecca, he toured cities in the territory between Andalusia and Hejaz and visited Acre, Sicily and Carthage on his way back. Ibn Jubayr, like other Muslim travel writers, had a keen eye for the scientific and educational situation, especially educational institutions in the lands he visited, and has provided invaluable and detailed information on this subject. Using a descriptive-analytical approach, this paper aims to analyze educational institutions through the spectacle of Jubayr after presenting a brief account of Ibn Jubayr’s reports on this subject. Based on the findings of this study, it is not surprising that Ibn al- Jubayr’s obsession with detailed depiction of educational institutions in some areas, especially Levant, has resulted in his neglect or negligence in elaborating on other institutions, such as the grand mosque attributed to Fatimids owing to his religious beliefs. In addition, a description of architectural elements, financial and welfare issues, financing strategies and the number of educational institutions, their religious affiliation as well as some specific educational practices in these centers are also other aspects of educational institutions examined by Ibn Jubayr.
The influential role of women in government decisions and their covert and overt lobbies in succession-related issues have been pivotal to stabilized rule of Qara Khitai government as well as their deterioration and decline. The present... more
The influential role of women in government decisions and their covert and overt lobbies in succession-related issues have been pivotal to stabilized rule of Qara Khitai government as well as their deterioration and decline. The present study uses a descriptive-analytical method to investigate the power and influence of three influential women in Qara Khitai history, Oke Khatun, Turkan Khatun, Padeshah Khatun, within the framework of Štefan Lux's Theory of Power. He rejects active conflict as a determining element of power. The main question of this paper is concerned with the influence and lobby of women in the issue of succession in Qara Khitai ruling system. The findings of the study suggest that the intervention of women in the form of anti-war and lobbying strategies through various strategies such as politically motivated marriage, seduction, lure, propaganda and political campaigns, among other things, have been effective in transferring power.
The Ilkhanid era is one of the most important periods in Persian historiography and prominent historical works were composed at this time. Given that these works were usually dedicated to the institution of power, poets and authors sought... more
The Ilkhanid era is one of the most important periods in Persian historiography and prominent historical works were composed at this time. Given that these works were usually dedicated to the institution of power, poets and authors sought to please the rulers of time. Hence, using a variety of linguistic and rhetorical devices, as well as community-based discourses, they strived to legitimize the Mongol kings. One of these strategies involved attributing divine dignity (Far Izadi) to the Mongol kings and comparing them to the Iranian ideal kings. This study investigates the application of religious discourse in order to sanctify Genghis Khan in three historical books of poetry including Mostufi’s Zafarnameh, Kashmani’s History in Verse and Tabriz’s Book of Kings. To this end, this paper elaborates on the pure essence of the Genghis ancestors, how the Mughal empire was related to the Unseen world and its divine glory, as well as the belief in the relationship between the Mongol invasion to Iran and the Genghis’ divine mission. According to the results, two different approaches could be identified in these works: Kashani and Mostufi have recruited various strategies to portray an ideal picture of Khan Mughal, but Tabrizi has been fairly reluctant in establishing Mongolian legitimacy and has sufficed to a brief mentioning. Khwaja Rashid al-Din also has adopted an intermediate approach in Jama'at al-Tavarikh. The idea of Genghis sanctification, which is evident in this recent work, has reached its zenith in Kashani’s History in Verse and Zafarnameh.
The Holy Quran, as the basic scripture of the Islam, contains a host of references to the events and persons at the early days of Islam. Informed by these references, this holy scripture is sometimes considered as a historiographical... more
The Holy Quran, as the basic scripture of the Islam, contains a host of references to the events and persons at the early days of Islam. Informed by these references, this holy scripture is sometimes considered as a historiographical work, with some scholars even speaking of the historiographical style of the Qur'an, which has also been the subject of several books and articles. This paper delves into this issue, and by distinguishing the two concepts of "historical text" and "historical document", seeks to answer the question, "Can Qur'an be considered as a historical work?" and "What implications can it have for the studies of the early Islam’s history?" The results of this article reveal that although the Qur'an cannot be exactly categorized as a historical book, it offers an account of the historical events during the era of prophet Muhammad (pbuh), which makes it into a unique primary document.